History of nuclear power/Summary of the map


WE BEGIN IN 1896.IN PARIS, PHYSICIST HENRI BECQUEREL ACCIDENTALLY DISCOVERS DURING AN EXPERIMENT THAT URANIUM LEAVES A TRACE -- OR DARKENS -- A PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATE WITHOUT ANY OTHER LIGHT SOURCE. HE CONCLUDES THAT URANIUM NATURALLY EMITS A RAY HE CALLS “UNIQUE” IN FRENCH.IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS, PHYSICISTS PIERRE AND MARIE CURIE DISCOVER OTHER ELEMENTS THAT ALSO NATURALLY EMIT RADIATION.THEY CALL THE PHENOMENON RADIOACTIVITY. LATER, ERNEST RUTHERFORD, A BRITISH PHYSICIST BORN IN NEW ZEALAND, SUGGESTS THAT RADIOACTIVITY IS RADIATION THAT ACCOMPANIES THE DISINTEGRATION OF ATOMS, WHICH WERE PREVIOUSLY CONSIDERED TO BE INDESTRUCTIBLE.OTHER FINDINGS ARE THEN USED TO BETTER UNDERSTAND THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM, WITH ELECTRONS REVOLVING AROUND A NUCLEUS COMPOSED OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS. N 1938, TWO GERMAN CHEMISTS, HAHN AND STRASSMANN DISCOVER NUCLEAR FISSION. BOMBARDING AN ATOM OF URANIUM WITH A NEUTRON, IT IS DIVIDED INTO TWO, RELEASING ENERGY.THE FOLLOWING YEAR IN PARIS, FRÉDÉRICJOLIOT-CURIE DISCOVERS THAT DURING THE NUCLEAR FISSION OF URANIUM, THREE NEUTRONS ARE EJECTED WHICH IN TURN COULD CAUSE FURTHER FISSION OF ATOMS. HE DISCOVERS THE ABILITY TO INITIATE A CHAIN REACTION AND THUS PRODUCES A LARGE AMOUNT OF ENERGY. IN EUROPE, WORLD WAR II BREAKS OUT.WHILE GERMANY CONTINUES TO CONDUCT RESEARCH ON URANIUM,ALBERT EINSTEIN IS CONVINCED BY HUNGARIAN PHYSICISTS TO SIGN A LETTER ADDRESSED TO ROOSEVELT, THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITEDSTATES INFORMING HIM OF RECENT NUCLEAR DISCOVERIES AND THE POSSIBILITY OF CREATING A VERY POWERFUL BOMB USING URANIUM. THE UNITED STATES BENEFITS FROM THE INFLUX OF EUROPEAN SCIENTISTS FLEEING WAR AND INVESTS IN RESEARCH. AT THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, GLENN SEABORG DISCOVERS THAT IRRADIATED URANIUM PRODUCES A TINY AMOUNT OF PLUTONIUM, A NEW METAL THAT IS RADIOACTIVE AND FISSILE, I.E. IT CAN TRIGGER A CHAIN REACTION. IN CHICAGO, ENRICO FERMI CREATES THE FIRST ATOMIC PILE AND - FOR THE FIRST TIME - MANAGES TO CONTROL THE FIRST CHAIN REACTION OF THE FISSION OF URANIUM ATOMS. RESEARCH IS ACCELERATED AND SUBSTANTIAL RESOURCES ARE INVESTED.THE UNITED STATES SECRETLY LAUNCHES THE MANHATTAN PROJECT IN COLLABORATION WITH CANADA AND THE UNITED KINGDOM. TOP SCIENTISTS GATHER IN ABOUT 30 SECRET LOCATIONS, WITH THE BEST LABORATORIES AT THE TIME MADE AVAILABLE TO THEM. THEIR GOAL IS TO CREATE THE ATOMIC BOMB. THE GOAL IS TO CREATE A BOMB FROM URANIUM AND ANOTHER FROM PLUTONIUM. IN NATURE, URANIUM IS COMPOSED OF MORE THAN 99% OF URANIUM 238, I.E. WITH A NUCLEUS OF 92 PROTONS AND 146 NEUTRONS, AND 0.7% OF URANIUM 235, WITH THREE NEUTRONS LESS. ONLY THE LATTER IS FISSILE AND THEREFORE USEFUL IN THE PROJECT.THE CHALLENGE IS ISOLATING AND CONCENTRATING IT TO OBTAIN SO-CALLED ENRICHED URANIUM. THE UNITED STATES MANAGESTO PRODUCE 64 TONS OF HIGHLY ENRICHED URANIUM TO BE USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF THE FIRST BOMB. BY PROPELLING A HIGHLY ENRICHED URANIUM BLOCK ONTO ANOTHER, THE MATERIAL BECOMES SUPERCRITICAL. FISSION BEGINS AND IN A SPLIT SECOND, A CHAIN REACTION ENSUES, RELEASING TREMENDOUS AMOUNTS OF ENERGY. FOR A PLUTONIUM BOMB, A MAXIMUM OF URANIUM PILES ARE CREATED IN ORDER TO COLLECT THE PLUTONIUM PRODUCED. A FEW POUNDS ARE CONCENTRATED IN THE CENTER OF THE BOMB.BY SIMULTANEOUSLY CAUSING EXPLOSIONS ALL AROUND, THE MATERIAL IS COMPRESSED, BECOMES SUPERCRITICAL, AND EXPLODES.ON 16 JULY 1945, THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL NUCLEAR TEST TAKES PLACE IN THE DESERT OF NEW MEXICO. BY THIS POINT, GERMANY HAD ALREADY SURRENDERED. ONLY THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN IS STILL AT WAR AGAINST THE UNITED STATES. AFTER JAPAN REFUSED TO SURRENDER UNCONDITIONALLY, THE UNITED STATES DROPS TWO ATOMIC BOMBS ON THE COUNTRY A URANIUM BOMB ON HIROSHIMA ANDA A PLUTONIUM ON NAGASAKI. THE TWO BOMBS CAUSE ABOUT 200,000 CIVILIAN CASUALTIES. DAYS LATER, JAPAN SURRENDERS. WITH THE UNITED STATES DEMONSTRATING ITS POWER TO THE WORLD, THE USSR ACCELERATES ITS OWN NUCLEAR PROGRAM TO TRY AND CATCH UP.THE USSRCONDUCTS ITS FIRST NUCLEAR TEST. DURING THE COLD WAR, BOTH POWERS ENGAGE IN A FRANTIC ARMS RACE.LARGE SUMS ARE SPENT TO GAIN TECHNOLOGICAL SUPERIORITY AND POSSESS THE WORLD’S LARGEST NUCLEAR ARSENAL WITH THE OSTENSIBLE AIM OF DETERRING THE ENEMY FROM ATTACKING. WHILE THE UNITED KINGDOM TESTS ITS FIRST ATOMIC BOMB, THE UNITED STATES TESTS ITS FIRST THERMONUCLEAR BOMB, ALSO KNOWN AS THE HYDROGEN OR H-BOMB.THIS ISA FUSION BOMB, I.E. IT REPRODUCES THE REACTION OCCURRING IN STARS BY FUSING TWO LIGHT ATOMS, DEUTERIUM, AND TRITIUM, UNDER HIGH PRESSURE AND A TEMPERATURE OF SEVERAL MILLION DEGREES CELSIUS.TO ACHIEVE THESE CONDITIONS, IT IS DECIDED TO USE THE ATOMIC BOMB AS A TRIGGER. THE EXPLOSION OF THE PLUTONIUM BOMB CREATES THE RIGHT CONDITIONS TO TRIGGER THE FUSION OF ATOMS. THE EXPLOSION THAT FOLLOWS IS FAR MORE POWERFUL THAN NUCLEAR FISSION.THE SOVIETS, IN TURN, DEVELOP THE H-BOMB. IN PARALLEL, RESEARCH IS MADE TO DEVELOP NUCLEAR POWER.THE FIRST NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS APPEAR. THE MAJORITY OF FUTURE REACTORS WOULD BE WITH PRESSURIZED WATER.IN THE CORE OF THE REACTOR IS A VESSEL IN WHICH LOW-ENRICHED URANIUM IS PLACED AND USED AS FUEL. CHAIN REACTIONS ARE CONTROLLED TO LAST ABOUT 3YEARS. THE HEAT EMITTED INCREASES THE TEMPERATURE OF PRESSURIZED WATER IN THE PRIMARY CIRCUIT. THIS CIRCUIT IS BROUGHT INTO CONTACT WITH THE SECONDARY CIRCUIT IN WHICH WATER HEATS TO TRANSFORM INTO STEAM. THIS IS USED TO ROTATE THE TURBINE WHICH IS LINKED TO A GENERATOR THAT PRODUCES ELECTRICITY. A COOLING CIRCUIT PUMPS WATER FROM A RIVER OR SEA TO COOL THE VAPOR IN THE SECONDARY CIRCUIT. SOMETIMES COOLING TOWERS ARE BUILT TO COOL THE WATER IN THE LAST CIRCUIT. TO ENCOURAGE RESEARCH IN NUCLEAR POWER, THE INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY (IAEA) IS CREATED UNDER THE AEGIS OF THE UNITED NATIONS. THE ORGANIZATION IS RESPONSIBLE FOR ENSURING THE SAFE AND PEACEFUL USE OF NUCLEAR ENERGY. IN ADDITION, NUCLEAR WOULD ALSO BE USED IN MEDICINE, NOTABLY IN MEDICAL IMAGING AND THE TREATMENT OF CERTAIN CANCERS. WHILE FRANCE TESTS ITS FIRST ATOMIC BOMB, THE ARMS RACE BETWEEN THE USSR AND THE UNITED STATES TAKES A TURN FOR THE WORSE. THE TWO POWERS HAVE ALREADY DEVELOPED INTERCONTINENTAL MISSILES AND NUCLEAR SUBMARINES. THE USSR CONDUCTS THE MOST POWERFUL TEST OF THE TSAR BOMBA, WITH A CAPACITY OF 50 TO 57 MEGATONS OF TNT. THE FOLLOWING YEAR, THE US TESTS A HYDROGEN BOMB AT AN ALTITUDE OF 400 KM. THE EXPLOSION CREATES AN ARTIFICIAL AURORA VISIBLE EVEN FROM NEWZEALAND; WHILE THE EMITTED RADIATION DAMAGES AT LEAST 8 SATELLITES. THE SAME YEAR, WHILE THE UNITED STATES THREATENS SOVIET TERRITORIES WITH NUCLEAR MISSILES INSTALLED IN TURKEY AND ITALY, THE USSR PLACED IN CUBA NUCLEAR MISSILES POINTED AT THE UNITED STATES. JUST AS TENSIONS BUILD TO A CLIMAX, NEGOTIATIONS TAKE PLACE BETWEEN THE TWO POWERS AFTER WHICH BOTH PARTIES WITHDRAW THEIR MISSILES AND THE SITUATION CALMS DOWN. CHINA TESTS ITS FIRST ATOMIC BOMB. THE UNITED STATES AND SOVIET UNION TAKE A DIM VIEW OF THE ARRIVAL OF NEW COMPETITORS. VIA THE UN, THEY PROPOSE A TREATY ON THE NONPROLIFERATION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS. THIS DIFFERENTIATES THE 5 SO-CALLED NUCLEAR POWERS FROM THE REST OF THE WORLD. EXISTING NUCLEAR POWERS CAN NOT SHARE KNOWLEDGE OR SUPPLY WEAPONS WHILE THE REMAINING COUNTRIES CAN NOT ATTEMPT TO OBTAIN THE ATOMIC BOMB. IN ADDITION, NUCLEAR POWERS ARE SUPPOSED TO DISARM AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE. THIS TREATY WOULD GRADUALLY BE SIGNED BY ALL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD WITH THE EXCEPTION OF INDIA, PAKISTAN, AND ISRAEL, WHICH DENY HAVING ATOMIC WEAPONS DESPITE HEAVY SUSPICION OF THE CONTRARY. LATIN AMERICA GOES FURTHER BY CREATING THE FIRST POPULATED AREA FREE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS. FINALLY, THE UNITED STATES AND SOVIET UNION AGREE TO LIMIT THE PRODUCTION OF STRATEGIC WEAPONS. 1973 SEES THE WORLD’S FIRST OIL CRISIS.

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